Aircraft Propeller - The drawings and specifications, and a listing of those drawings and specifications. They are necessary to define the configuration and the design feature of the product shown to comply with the applicable type certification basis and environmental protection requirements.
Exposition. The organization must supply a Production Organization Exposition (POE) (Part 21A.143), a document similar to the DOA Handbook we have previously mentioned. The document provides a general description of the organization and its scope of work, titles, and names of managers with their duties and responsibilities, a list of certifying staff, a description of the Quality System, inherent procedures, and so on.
Aircraft Propeller
As the name suggests, the blade pitch or angle of a controllable-pitch propeller can be changed during flight while the aircraft propeller is still running. This means that the blade angle of the propeller can be changed to meet flight conditions.
Type Certificate Tc
This scenario is remedied by installing a counter-rotating8 engine/propeller combination (see Figure 15-20). "This provides balanced thrust during T-O and climb and eliminates the 'critical engine' factor in single-engine flight." [7] The primary drawback is that it is more expensive to produce, as logistically it must feature two engines and propellers that are dissimilar because they rotate in the opposite direction.
An operation of such an aircraft results in greater expenses as engine parts are not interchangeable. This can pose a peculiar situation to an operator, who might have parts for the left engine on hand, while none are in stock for a failed right engine.
Such scenarios should not be overlooked when selecting an engine configuration as this could severely impact the finances of an operator. Instead, the designer should size the control system and surfaces to handle the critical engine.
We manufacture a complete line of aviation propellers. These include fixed pitch wood propellers for antique, light sport and experimental aircraft. Aluminum propellers for general aviation aircraft such as Cessna and Piper along with experimental aircraft such as Van's RV and Glassairs.
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Composite ground adjustable propellers for light sport aircraft using Rotax, Jabiru, Continental and Lycoming engines. Banking towards the functional engine establishes a turning tendency that reduces the need for rudder deflection. Increasing banking may even eliminate the need for rudder input, but usually at the cost of an already impaired performance.
There is a limit to how much banking is practical. Too large and the rate-of-climb suffers. It may prevent the aircraft from maintaining altitude. As a rule of thumb, to achieve the maximum rate-of-climb in the OEI configuration (VYSE) a bank angle of 2° is recommended if the noncritical engine fails, and 3° if the critical engine fails.
A bank angle in excess of 5° results in rate-of-descent (loss of altitude) for underpowered twins. Once the manufacturer of a civilian (i.e. non-military) aircraft, engine, or propeller has demonstrated that their product meets or exceeds the current airworthiness standards set by its regulatory agency, it is awarded a TC by publishing a type certificate data sheet (TCDS
). The TCDS is a document that contains important information about operating limitations, applicable regulations, and other restrictions. This means the aircraft is now "officially defined" by the TC. TCDS for all civilian aircraft can be viewed on the FAA website [13].
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Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock (LockA locked padlock) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Normalization of thrust and power: Since engine thrust or power depends on altitude, a proper comparison requires a transfer of all altitude characteristics to S-L.
This can be accomplished for piston-engine power using the Gagg-Ferrar model, presented in Equation (7-16). For gas turbines the method of Mattingly et al., presented in Section 7.2, The properties of selected engine types, can be used.
Alternatively, if the airplane is powered with a gas turbine, the designer may have access to an "engine deck" which is software written by the engine manufacturer that allows the thrust (or SHP) at a given altitude, airspeed, and other operational parameters
to be extracted. Using such software, the designer should make sure the engine can generate the required thrust or SHP in the corresponding conditions. The device that converts rotational energy generated by the engine or any other mechanical source into propulsive force is called a propeller.
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Propellers are an essential part of the aircraft as without them an airplane cannot fly. Latches lock the aircraft's propeller in the low blade angle as it slows down at engine shutdown. Latches can be external or internal and are located inside the propeller hub.
Centrifugal force holds the latches off their seat during a normal flight to ensure that they don't stop the blades from feathering. Under procedures agreed with its competent authority for production, for an aircraft it has produced and when the production organization itself is controlling under its POA the configuration of the aircraft and is attesting conformity with the design conditions approved for the flight, issue a permit to fly
in accordance with 21A.711(c) including approval of the flight conditions in accordance with 21A.710(b).7 General remarks. We can make the same considerations for POA that we made for DOA in Chapter 5. Also, in POA, there is a true leap of quality, leading to a condition of self-control for the organization, with advantages for safety and authority efficiency.
Figure 15-18. Asymmetric disc loading on a twin-engine aircraft in cruise (left) and in case of an engine failure (right). The rudder must be trimmed at a significantly higher deflection than for the normal operation, in addition to the recommended practice of "banking into the good engine" (see Figure 15-19 and text).
Fixed-Pitch
As previously mentioned in describing AC 21-23B, the TC validation is a rather complex process, sometimes more difficult than the original type certification itself. Of course, the process can be simplified when two authorities have acquired sufficient experience as regards importing/exporting, but above all if the personnel are well aware of the philosophy of bilateral agreements.
A case in point is the constraint diagrams seen in Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3 for Example 3-1, developed in conjunction with the constraint curves superimposed on the design space. The fact is that some are plotted at S-L conditions, while others represent higher altitudes.
Consider the curve representing the service ceiling in Figure 3-3. At W/S = 30 lbf/ft² this requirement calls for approximately 160 BHP at 20000 ft. The point is that, using the Gagg and Ferrar model, this means the engine must be capable of producing at least 340 BHP at S-L at that wing loading.
Therefore, we say that the higher horsepower number (340 BHP) has been normalized to S-L conditions. Note that Figure 3-4 shows all the requirements presented in the example normalized in this fashion. A manager accountable to the authority.
Certification Basis
He or she should be responsible for the organization's activities on these matters and has the corporate authority for ensuring that all production work is carried out to the required standards. The authority may be delegated in writing to another manager of the organization.
The holder or licensee of a U.S. type certificate for that product furnishes with each such aircraft engine or propeller imported into the United States, an export airworthiness approval issued in accordance with the provisions of that agreement certifying that the individual aircraft engine or propeller:
With reference to the AC 21-23B, we will quote as a matter of clarity some points relating to the FAA's technical involvement in the validation of imported (in the United States) products and inherent changes. This involvement, of which it is important to be aware because it is also related to European exports to the United States, consists of the following:
To establish the US type certification basis and the means of compliance for the product under application by determining the US airworthiness and environmental standards that would be applied to a similar product if it were to be produced in the United States.
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When the engine rpm decreases below the specific value of the governor (for which the governor is set), then the governor causes the pitch-changing mechanism of the propeller to decrease the angle of the blade. This decreases the load on the engine thereby increasing the rpm.
In this manner, the governor tends to keep rpm constant. These propellers are designed to provide the best efficiency at forwarding speeds. They fit a specific set of conditions of both engine and airplane speed. Any change in those conditions reduces both the propeller and engine efficiency.
Fixed-pitch propellers are used on airplanes of low speed, power, altitude, or range. The pitch-changing mechanism of a constant-speed propeller uses a piston and cylinder arrangement and is operated hydraulically using oil pressure. Either cylinder will move over a piston or the piston will move in a stationary cylinder.
The piston's linear motion is converted into rotary motion by different kinds of mechanical linkages to change the propeller's blade angle. Gears may be used for the mechanical connection - the pitch-changing mechanism responsible for turning each blade's butt.
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A bearing is mounted on each blade that allows them to rotate to change the blade angle. The effect of loss of engine power on the performance of a small generic twin is illustrated in Figure 15-21.
The figure shows that in normal operation, the aircraft climbs 1396 fpm at S-L and offers a maximum speed of 170 KCAS. Losing an engine drops this to 232 fpm and 118 KCAS, respectively. The analysis assumes a drag increase associated with maintaining a straight heading with OEI by adding 50 drag-counts (ΔCD OEI) to the original CDmin.
This assumes the airplane being flown cross-controlled in a yawed configuration. It is disconcerting that the low rate-of-climb limits room for mistakes. An inexperienced or frantic pilot may easily maneuver the airplane off the peak conditions, causing it to lose altitude.
The Competent Authority requires the POE to be an accurate definition and description of the production organization. The document does not require approval in itself, but it will be considered as such by virtue of the approval of the organization.
The aim is to have the organization able to produce, in conformity with the applicable design, products, parts, and appliances in condition for safe operation. 4 To ensure the above, the Quality Assurance Function has to perform planned, continuing, and systematic evaluations
or audits of factors that affect the conformity and safe operation. For example, if the speed of the engine increases, an overspeed condition will occur and the propeller will need to slow down. The governor automatically increases the propeller's blade angle until the desired rpm has been established.
Good constant-speed propellers respond to small variations to ensure that a constant engine rpm is maintained throughout the flight. The Quality System must include an Independent Quality Assurance Function to monitor compliance with, and adequacy of, the documented procedures of the Quality System.
"Independent" is related to the lines of reporting, authority, and access within the organization, and assumes an ability to work without technical reliance on the monitored functions. Constant-speed propellers speed up when the airplane dives and slows down when it climbs due to the changing load on the engine.
To ensure that the propeller provides an efficient flight, the pilot tries to keep the speed as constant as possible. The mechanism that allows a constant-speed propeller to work is known as propeller governor. A propeller governor senses the aircraft engine's speed and changes the blade angle of the propeller to maintain a specific rpm regardless of the aircraft's operational conditions.
Wooden fixed propellers or wooden propellers are hardly found in today's aircraft, but they were widely used before the introduction of metal propellers. These propellers were built layer by layer with specially prepared wood. Black walnut wood, sugar maple wood, yellow birch wood, and black cherry wood were most commonly used in the making of these now vintage wooden propellers.
The FAA may issue a type certificate for a product that is manufactured in a foreign country or jurisdiction with which the United States has an agreement for the acceptance of these products for export and import and that is to be imported into the United States if:
The applicant shall justify (21.A.131) that an approval under Subpart G is appropriate for the purpose of showing conformity with a specific design (approved or to be approved); and have ensured satisfactory coordination between production and design through an appropriate arrangement with the holder or applicant of an approval of that specific design.
One of the problems encountered at this stage of the design is that the geometry of the airplane is largely unknown. For that reason, one does not know important parameters such as CDmin, CDTO, CLTO, and k.
To resolve this issue, the designer must look at existing aircraft in the same class as the one being designed and try to estimate them. Table 3-1 is intended to give the designer a range of typical values, instead of such a study.
Also, consider Table 15-18, which lists CDmin for a number of selected aircraft. The first metal propellers were used in the aircraft for military operations during 1940. These propellers were made using incredibly strong and durable aluminum alloy.
The metal material used in the making of these propellers was treated to enhance its properties and make it less prone to warping from damage due to heat or cold. Today, it is hard to find an aircraft propeller made of anything but metal.
Where standard parts, materials, processes or services are included in the applicable design data (see guidance on applicable design data in GM 21.A.131) their standards should be controlled by the POA holder in a manner which is satisfactory for the final use
of the item on the product, part or appliance.
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